Model 21

1-الوظائف والفروقات

(1) Jobs that are dangerous or unpleasant must pay more than jobs requiring similar skills but without the bad attributes. Thus, oil field workers in Alaska’s North Slope, well above the Arctic Circle, earn a premium over workers in similar jobs in Houston, Texas. The premium – or differential pay – must be such that the marginal worker is indifferent between the two choices – the extra pay compensates the worker for the adverse working conditions. This is why it is known in economics jargon by the phrase of a compensating differential.
(2) The high salaries earned by professional basketball players are not compensating differentia. These salaries are not created by a need to induce tall people to choose basketball over alternative jobs like painting ceilings, but instead are payments that reflect the rarity of the skills and abilities involved. Compensating differentials are determined by alternatives, not by direct scarcity. Professional basketball players are well-paid for the same reason that Picasso’s paintings are expensive: there aren’t very many of them relative to demand.
(3) A compensating differential is a feature of other choices as well as career choices. For example, many people would like to live in California. for its weather and scenic beauty. Given the desirability of California over, say, Lincoln, Nebraska or Rochester, New York, there must be a compensating differential for living in Rochester, and two significant ones are air quality and housing prices. Air quality worsens as populations rise. thus tending to create a compensating differential. In addition, the increase in housing prices also tends to compensate – housing is inexpensive in Rochester, at least compared to California.

1. what does paragraph (1) say about Houston, Texas?

2. What does Paragraph (1) say about oil field workers in Alaska?

3. What does Paragraph (2) say about why basketball players have high salaries?

4. What does Paragraph (3) say about California?

5. What does Paragraph (3) say about Rochester?

6. Which sentience gives the main idea of paragraph (3)?

7. What is the main idea of the passage?

2-التجنيد

Passage A: External Recruiting
(1) External recruiting is the attempt to attract job applicants from outside an organization. External recruiting may include recruiting via newspaper advertising, employment agencies, and online employment organizations; recruiting on college campuses, soliciting recommendations from present employees; and conducting «open houses». The biggest of the online job-search sites is Monster.com, which has almost all the Fortune 500 companies, as well as small and medium-sized businesses, as clients. In addition, many people simply apply at a firm’s employment office.
(2) Clearly, it is best to match the recruiting means with the kind of applicant being sought. For example, private employment agencies most often handle professional people, whereas public employment agencies (operated by state or local governments) are more concerned with operations personnel. We might approach a private agency when looking for a vice president but contact a public agency to hire a machinist. Procter and Gamble hires graduates directly out of college. It picks the best and brightest – not those «tainted» by another company’s culture. It promotes its own «inside» people. This policy makes sure that the company retains the best and brightest and trains new recruits. Procter and Gamble pays competitively and offers positions in many countries. Employee turnover is very low.
(3) The primary advantage of external recruiting is that it brings in people with new perspectives and varied business backgrounds. A disadvantage of external recruiting is that it is often expensive, especially if private employment agencies must be used. External recruiting also may provoke resentment among present employees.
Passage B:Internal Recruiting
(1) Internal recruiting means considering present employees. Among leading companies ? promoted from within. In the companies that hire CEOs from outside, 40 percent of CEOs are gone after 18 months.
(2) Promoting from within provides strong motivation for current employees and helps the firm to retain quality personnel. General Electric, ExxonMobil, and Eastman Kodak are companies dedicated to promoting from within. The practice of job posting, or informing current employees of upcoming openings, may be a company policy or required by union contract. The primary disadvantage of internal recruiting is that promoting a current employee leaves another position to be filled. Not only does the firm still incur recruiting and selection costs, but it also must train two employees instead of one.
(3) In many situations it may be impossible to recruit internally. For example, a new position may be such that no current employee is qualified, or the firm may be growing so rapidly that there is no time to reassign positions that promotion or transfer requires. Unions are culturally specific to countries other than Saudi Arabia, so test takers may not be familiar with «union contract».

8. According to Passages A and B, what is the benefit of promoting within a company?

9. What can we understand from Passages A and B about recruiting?

10. What can we understand from Passages A and B about promoting employees?

11. What can we understand from both passages about internal and external recruiting?

3-الاقتصاد

12. What was the cost of hurricane damage in 1928?

13- in which year was the cost of hurricane damage the highest

4-قانون التعاقد

Contract law is at the heart of almost every business transaction. Laws regarding contracts, or agreements between parties, originated and developed through English common law and are among the earliest laws created. Many present-day rules are the same as they were years ago, although these laws have been incorporated in both state and federal codes. In addition to these well-established contract principles, modern business practices are governed by laws that were designed to meet today’s needs. In particular, contracts for the sale of goods various consumer protection statutes.

14. …….the word agreements is closest in meaning to

15. The word governed in the passage is closest in meaning to ………..

5-فقدان الطاقة

(1) No system can be perfect in the way it operates. Whenever there is a change in a system, energy is transferred and some of that energy is dissipated.
(2) Dissipation is a term that is often used to describe ways in which energy is wasted. Any energy that is not transferred to useful energy stores is said to be wasted because it is lost to the Surroundings. Electrical cables Warming up are a good example of this. It is not useful to have hot wires behind a television as energy is dissipated to the surrounding air.
(3) In a mechanical system, energy is dissipated when two surfaces rub together, work is done against friction which camass heading of the two surface – so the internal (thermal) energy of the surface increases adding Lubricant between the surfaces reduce this friction and so less heat is wasted, like on a conveyor belt for example.
(4) In an electrical context – new types of components can be more energy – efficient, for example, using LED light bulbs as opposed to filament lamps causes less energy to be wasted. Normally. Energy is lost by heating up the surroundings though sometimes energy is dissipated as sound waves.

16. What’s the writer’s main purpose?

17. What is one important point that the writer mentions?

18. What is one important point that the writer mentions?

6-علماء النفس

(1) The earliest psychologists use we know about are the Greek philosophers Plato (428-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). These philosophers asked many of the same questions that today’s psychologists. for Instance, they questioned the distinction between nature and nurture and the existence of free will. In terms of the former. Plato argued on the nature side, believing that certain kinds of knowledge innate or inborn, whereas Aristotle was more on the nurture side believing that each child is born as an «empty slate» (in Latin a tabula rasa) and that knowledge is primarily acquired through
(2) European philosophers continued to ask these fundamental questions during the Renaissance. For instance, the French philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650) also considered the issue of free will, arguing in its favor and believing that the mind controls the body through the pineal gland in the brain (an idea that made some sense at this time but was later proved incorrect). Descartes also believed in the existence of innate natural abilities. A scientist as well as a philosopher, Descartes dissected animals and was among the first to understand that the nerves controlled the muscles. He also addressed the relationship between mind the mental aspects of life) and body (the physical aspects of life). Descartes believed in the principle of dualism that the mind is fundamentally different from the mechanical body. Other European philosophers, including Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). Jolm Locke (1632-1704), and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). also weighed in on these Issues psychologist ? Wundt (1832–1920), who developed a psychology laboratory in Leipzig Germany. and the American psychologist William James (1842–1910), who founded a psychology laboratory at Harvard University.
(4) Wundt’s research in his Laboratory in Liepzig focused on the ? of consciousness Itself. Wundt and his students believed that it was possible to analyze the basic elements of the mind and to classify our conscious experiences scientifically. Wundt began the field know as structuralism, a school of psychology whose goal was to Identify the basic elements or «structures» of psychological experience. Its goal was to create a «periodic table» of the «elements ofsensations» similar to the periodic table of elements that had recently created in chemistry.
(5) Structural used the method of introspection to attempt to create a map of the elements of consciousness Introspection involves asking research participants to describe exactly what they experience as they work on mental tasks. such as viewing colors. reading a page in a book or performing a math problem. instance, that he saw some black and colored straight and curved marks on a white background. In other studies the structuralists used newly invented reaction time instruments to systematically assess not only what the participants were thinking but how long it took them to do so. Wundt discovered that it took people longer to report what sound they had just heard that to simply respond that they had heard the sound. These studies marked the first time researchers realized that there is a difference between the sensation of a stimulus and the perception of that stimulus, and the idea of using reaction time to study mental events has now become a mainstay of cognitive psychology.
(6) Perhaps the best known of the structurnlists was Edward Bradford Titchener (1867- 1927). Titchener was a student of Wundt who came to the United States in the late 1800s and founded a laboratory at Comell University. In his research using introspection, Titchener and his students claimed to have identified more than 40,000 sensations, including those relating to vision henring, and taste.
(7) An important aspect of the structuralist approach was that it was rigorous and scientific. The research marked the beginning of psychology as a science, because it demonstrated that mental events could be quantified. But the fundamental problem that these philosophers faced was that they had few methods for settling their claims. Most philosophers didn’t conduct any research on these questions. In part because they didn’t yet know how to do it, and in part because they weren’t sure it was even.

19. What two theories about human knowledge did Plato and Aristotle develop?

20. What does Descartes’ principle of duality deal with?

21. What three examples did the structuralists use to explain introspection?

8-الكتابة الأكاديمية

1) There are four main types of academic writing and each of these writing styles is used for a specific purpose.
2) Expository writing is one of the most common types of writing. When an author writes in an expository style, all they are trying to do is to explain a concept, imparting information from themselves to a wider audience. Expository writing does not include the author’s opinion but focused on accepted facts about a topic, including statistics or other evidence.
3) Descriptive writing is often found in fiction, though it can make an appearance in nonfiction as well memories, first hand, accounts of events, or travel guides). When an author writes in a descriptive style, they are painting a picture in words of a person, place or thing for their audience. The author might employ a metaphor or other literary devices in order to describe the author’s impressions. But the author is not trying to convince the audience of anything or explain the scene.
4) Persuasive writing is the main style of writing used in academic papers. When the author writes in a persuasive style, they are trying to convince the audience of a position or belief. Persuasive writing contains the author’s as evidence of the correctness of their position. Any “argumentative” Essay written in school should be in the persuasive style of writing.
5) Narrative writing is used almost every longer. Piece of writing, whether fiction or nonfictions. When an author writes in a narrative style, they are not trying to import information, they are trying to construct and communicative a story, complete with characters, conflict and settings.

22. What is the main idea of the passage?

23.What does the paragraph (2) say about expository writing?