Model 16

1– برامج مفتوحة المصدر

(1) When the personal computer was first released, it did not serve any practical need. Early computers were difficult to program and required great attention to detail. However, many personal-computer enthusiasts immediately banded together to build applications and solve problems. These computer enthusiasts were happy to share any programs they built and solutions to problems they found; this collaboration enabled them to more quickly innovate and fix problems.
(2) As software began to become a business, however, this idea of sharing everything fell out of favor, at least with some. When a software program takes hundreds of man-hours to develop, it is understandable that the programmers do not want to just give it away. This led to a new business model of restrictive software licensing, which required payment for software, a model that is still dominant today. This model is sometimes referred to as closed source, as the source code is not made available to others.
(3) There are many, however, who feel that software should not be restricted. Just as with those early hobbyists in the 1970s, they feel that innovation and progress can be made much more rapidly if we share what we learn. In the 1990s, with Internet access connecting more and more people together, the open source movement gained steam. Open-source software is software that makes the source code available for anyone to copy and use. For most of us, having access to the source code of a program does us little good, as we are not programmers and won’t be able to do much with it. The good news is that open-source software is also available in a compiled format that we can simply download and install.
(4) The open-source software is superior to closed-source software. Because the source code is freely available, many programmers have contributed to open-source software projects, adding features and fixing bags. Many businesses are wary of open-source software precisely because the code is available for anyone to sec. They feel that this increases the risk of an attack. Others counter that this openness actually decreases the risk because the code is exposed to thousands of programmers who can incorporate code changes to quickly patch vulnerabilities.
(5) There are many arguments on both sides of the aisle for the benefits of the two models.
Some benefits of the open-source model are:
• The software is available for free. The software source-code is available; it can be examined and reviewed before it is installed.
• The large community of programmers who work on open-source projects leads to quick bug fixing and feature additions.
Some benefits ofthe closed-source model are:
• By providing financial incentive for software development, some of the brightest minds have chosen software development as a career.
• Technical support from the company that developed the software. 36 Information Systems for Business and Beyond.

1- What helped open-source software gain steam?

2- What is one benefit of open-source software?

3- What is one benefit of closed-source software?

2–الموز المعدّل وراثيًا

(1) Each year, thousands of children in East Africa go blind or die because they don’t get enough vitamin A Now, with the support of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Ugandan, American and Australian researchers are trying to develop a potential fix: a genetically modified banana that packs a significantly larger vitamin A punch.
(2) The bananas have already been successfully tested on gerbils. Researchers created the new bananas by slightly tweaking its genome so that the fruit contains more alpha and beta caroteno-plant-synthesized substances that animals convert into vitamin A The new bananas have a slight orange shade but taste the same as non-genetically modified bananas. Human trials just began in Iowa, and if they’re successful farmers in Uganda will be growing the GMO bananas by 2020. About 70 percent of people there rely on bananas as a major staple of their diets, so delivering the extra vitamin boost through the fruit should be an effective means of helping to alleviate vitamin A deficiency. I the GM banana scheme helps reduce death and blindness rates in Uganda, it could be transferred to other countries or applied to other fruits, like plantains.
(3) Bananas are not the only food whose yield or nutritional profile could be improved with genetic engineering. With climate change threatening to disrupt existing crops and growing global populations demanding more of those supplies, genetic engineering could be solution for making the most of limited space and resources. Quite a number of foodsthat fit this profile have already been created including virus resistant squash, and disease-resistant potatoes.

5- What is the writer’s main purpose?

6- What is one important idea that the writer mentions?

7- What is one important idea that the writer mentions?

3-الملاحظة في البحث العلمي

(1) Scientists search for answers to questions and solutions to problems by using a procedure called the scientific method. This procedure consists of making observations, formulating hypotheses, and designing experiments, which in turn lead to additional observations, hypotheses, and experiments in repeated cycles.
(2) Observations can be qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative observations describe properties or occurrences in ways that do not rely on numbers. Often, this data can be collected through observation. Examples of qualitative observations include the following: the outside air temperature is cooler during the winter season and table salt is a crystalline solid.
(3) Quantitative observations are measurements, which by definition consist of both a number and a unit. Examples of quantative observations include the following: the melting point of crysaline sulfur is 115.21 degrees celesius , and 35.9 grams og table salt- whose chemical name is sodiume chloride – dissolve in 100 grams of water at 20 degrees celsius.
(4) After deciding to learn more about an observation or a set of observations scientists generally begin an investigation by forming a hypothesis, a tentative explanation for the observations. The hypothesis may not be correct , but it put the scientist’s understanding of the system being studied into a form that can be tested.

8- What does Paragraph (1) say about the scientific method?

9- What does Paragraph (2) say about qualitative observations?

10- Which sentence gives the main idea of Paragraph (2)?

11- Which sentence gives the main idea of Paragraph (3)?

12- What does Paragraph (4) say about hypothesis?

13- What is the main idea of the passage?

4-القلق والفوبيا

(1) As with generalized anxiety and phobias, we can see aspects of our own behavior in obsessive-compulsive disorder. We may at times be obsessed with senseless or offensive thoughts that will not go away. Or we may engage in compulsive, rigid behavior – rechecking a locked door, stepping over cracks in the sidewalk, or lining up our books and pencils just so” before studying.
(2) Obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors cross the fine line between normality and disorder when they become O persistent that they interfere with the way we live or when they cause distress. Checking to see that the door is locked is normal; checking the door 10 times is not. Hand washing is normal; hand washing so often that one’s skin becomes raw is not. At some time during their lives, often during their late teens or twenties, 2 to 3 percent of people cross that line from normal preoccupations and fussiness to debilitating disorder. The obsessive thoughts become so haunting, the compulsive ritualsso senselessly time-consuming, that effective functioning becomes impossible.
(3) One much person was billionaire Howard Hughes. Hughes would compulsively dictate the same phrases over and over again. Under stress, he developed an obsessive fear of germs. He became reclusive and insisted that his assistants carry out elaborate hand washing rituals and wear white gloves when handling documents he would later touch. He ordered tape around doors and windows and forbade his staff to touch or even look at him. “Everybody carries germs around with them,” he explained. “I want to live longer than my parents, so I avoid germs”.

14- What is the main topic of this passage?

15- What is one important idea related to general anxiety and phobias mentioned In Paragraph (1)?

16- What important information about obsessive thoughts and compulsive behavior is expressed in Paragraph (2)?

17- What is an example of Hughes’ obsessive behavior in the passage?

18- What key information is given about Howard Hughes in Paragraph (3)?

19- Why does the writer mention Howard Hughes?

5-علم النفس

(1) Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. The word “psychology” comes from the Greek words “psyche, meaning life, and “logos,” meaning explanation. Psychology is a popular major for students, a popular topic in the public media, and a part of our everyday lives. Television shows often feature psychologists who provide personal advice to those with personal or family difficulties. Crime dramas such as CSI, Lie to Me, and others feature the work of forensic psychologists who use psychological principles to help solve crimes. And many people have direct knowledge about psychology because they have visited psychologists, for instance, school counselors, family therapists, and religious, marriage, or bereavement counselors.
(2) Because we are frequently exposed to the work of psychologists in our everyday lives, we all have an idea about what psychology is and what psychologists do. In many ways, your conceptions are probably correct. Psychologists do work in forensic fields, and they do provide counseling and therapy for people in distress. But there are hundreds of thousands of psychologists in the world, and most of them work in other places, doing work that you are probably now aware of.
(3) Most psychologists work in research laboratories, hospitals, and other field settings where they study the behavior of humans and animals. For instance, experts in the Psychology Department at the University of Maryland study such diverse topics as anxiety in children, the interpretation of dreams, the effects of caffeine on thinking, how birds recognize each other, how people from different cultures react differently in negotiation. Psychologists also work in schools and businesses, and they use a variety of methods, including observation, questionnaires, interviews, and laboratory studies, to help them understand behavior.

20- What do psychologists do to help people who are not happy in their lives?

21- Why does the writer use the word “Because” in Paragraph (2)?

22- What does the passage say about the work of most psychologists?

23- Which word can we use to replace the word “But” in paragraph (2)?

24- What does the writer think about our knowledge of psychology?

6-الحبل الشوكي

(1) The spinal cord is an information highway connecting the nervous system to the brain. Ascending neural areas send up sensory information, and descending areas send back motor-control information. A look at the neural pathways that control our reflexes, our automatic responses to stimuli, shows the spinal cord’s work. A simple spinal-reflex path is composed of a single sensory neuron and a single motor neuron, which often communicate through an interneuron.
(2) One such path makes up the pain reflex. When your fingers touch a hot stove, neural activity excited by the heat travels via sensory neurons to interneurons in your spinal cord. These interneurons respond by activating motor neurons to the muscles in your arm, causing you to jerk your hand away.
(3) Because the simple pain-reflex pathway runs through the spinal cord and out, you jerk your hand from a candle’s flame before your brain receives and responds to the information that causes you to feel pain. Information travels to and from the brain by way of the spinal cord. Were the top of your spinal cord severed, you would not feel such pain. Or pleasure. Your brain would literally be out of touch with your body. Thus, you would lose all sensation and voluntary movement in body regions whose sensory and motor neurons connect with the spinal cord below its point of injury.

25- What helps information travel up and down the spine?

26- According to Paragraph (2), what finally makes you take your hand away from something hot?

27- When would your brain stop receiving information from the spinal cord?

28- The word connecting in Paragraph (1) is closest in meaning to …………

7-تحليل بيانات

29] Which year had the most visitors to Saudi Arabia?

8- منظمة مشروع

(1) There is no single organizational approach to projects. Each project is organized to accomplish the work effectively and efficiently. Several factors influence the organizational approach to execute a project. The complexity profile of a project, the culture of the parent organization, the preferences of the project manager, the knowledge and skills of the team, and a parent organization with a project management office are examples of factors that influence the project’s organization.
(2) In developing the project organizational structure, the project manager consider the span of control for each manager. The span of control represents the number of people reporting to a manager.
(3) Most projects have similar functions that are important to successfully managing the project. Included among there are the following:
• Sponsor
• Project manager
• Controls
• Procurement
• Quality
• Administration
(4) On smaller projects, more than one function can be managed by one person. On larger projects, large teams may be needed to accomplish the work within the function.
Project Sponsor
(5) The project sponsor is outside the day-to-day operations of the project and has the organizational authority to provide resources and overcome barriers for the project. The project sponsor is typically a leader in the parent organization with an interest in the outcome of the project. As a leader in the parent organization, the project sponsor can provide input into the project scope and other documents that define project success. The guidance and support from the project sponsor enhances the ability of the project to successfully meet the parent organization’s objectives.

Project Manager
(6) Project managers often have the breadth of responsibility associated with corporate chief executive officers (CEOs). The project manager facilitates the start-up of a project and develops the staff, resources, and work processes to accomplish the work of the project. He or she manages the project effectively and efficiently and oversees the closeout phase. Some projects are larger than major divisions of some organizations, with the project manager responsible for a larger budget and managing more risk than most of the organizational leaders. A mining company that builds a new mine in South Africa, an automobile manufacturer that creates a new truck design, and a pharmaceutical company that moves a new drug from testing to production are examples of projects that may consume more resources in a given year than any of the organization’s operating divisions.
(7) The function of the project manager can vary depending on the complexity profile and the organizational structure. Defining and managing client expectations and start-up activities, developing the scope, and managing change are functions of the project manager. On some projects, the project manager may provide direction to the technical team on the project. On other projects, the technical leadership might come from the technical division of the parent organization
(8) Although the functional responsibilities of the project manager may vary, the primary role is consistent on every project. The primary role of the project manager is to lead to provide a vision of success, to connect everyone involved in the project to that vision, and to provide the means and methods to achieve success. The project manager creates a goal-directed and time focused project culture. The project manager provides leadership.
Project Procurement
(9) The approach to purchasing the supplies and equipment needed by the project is related to the complexity profile of the project. A small project with a low complexity level may be able to use the procurement services of the parent organization. In an organization where project resources reside in various departments, the departments may provide the supplies and equipment each team member of the project may need.

Project Quality
(10) Project quality is often part of the technical manager’s responsibility. On large projects or projects with a high degree of technical complexity, the quality is sometimes a separate function reporting to the project manager. The project quality manager focuses on the quality of the project work processes and not the quality of the client’s product. For example, if the project is to design and construct an automobile factory, the quality manager focuses on the project work processes and meeting the technical specification of the equipment installed by the project team. The project quality manager is not responsible for the quality of the car the plant produces. If the plant functions to the defined project specifications, the quality of the plant output is the responsibility of the plant quality department, and it may take several months for the plant to refine the work processes to meet the design specifications of the car.
Project Administration
(11) The administrative function provides project specific support such as the following:
•Accounting services
•Legal services
•Property management
•Human resources(HR) management
•Other support functions found in most organizations
In most organizations, support for these functions is provided by the parent organization. For example, people assigned to the project will get human resources (HR) support from the HR department of the parent organization. Salary, benefits, and HR policies for employees assigned to the project will be supported out of the HR department. The parent organization will provide accounting functions such as determining the cost of cash, taxes, year-end project reports, and property disposal at the end of the project.

30- What are two important functions of a project?

31- Which activities will support HR department?

9-قانون التعاقد

Contract law is at the heart of almost every business transaction. Laws regarding contracts, or agreements between parties, originated and developed through English common law and are among the earliest laws created. Many present-day rules are the same as they were years ago, although these laws have been incorporated in both state and federal codes. In addition to these well-established contract principles, modern business practices are governed by laws that were designed to meet today’s needs. In particular, contracts for the sale of goods are governed by the Uniform Commercial Code and many consumer contracts are governed by various consumer protection statutes.

32- The word agreements in paragraph (1) is closest in meaning to ……..

33- the word governed in paragraph (1) is closest in meaning to …………

الإجابة تكون كلمة بمعنى تحكم لان السياق يقول ان ممارسات البيزنس تحكمه القوانين

10-أبحاث مموَلة من الشركة

(1) A soda company sponsoring nutrition research. An oil company helping fund a climate-related research meeting. Does the public care who’s paying for science?
(2) In a word, yes. When industry funds science, credibility suffers. And this does not bode well for the types of public-private research partnerships that appear to be becoming more common as government funding for research and development reduces.
(3) The recurring topic of conflict of interest has made headlines in recent weeks. The National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine has revised its conflict of interact midalinac

34.It is a company concentrate with………

35. the word fund in paragraph (1) is closest in meaning to …………

36. the word conflict in paragraph (3) is closest in meaning to …………

11-المنافسة السعرية

(1) Before a product’s price can be set, an organization must determine the basis on which it will compete whether on price alone or some combination of factors. The choice influences pricing decisions as well as other marketing-mix variables.
(2) Price competition occurs when a seller emphasizes a product’s low price and gets a price that equals or beats competitors’ prices. To use this approach most effectively, a seller must have the flexibility to change prices often and must do so rapidly and aggressively whenever competitors change their prices. Price competition allows a marketer to set prices based on demand for the product or in response to changes.

37.What is the first step to take before determining the price of a product?

38. When does competition happen?

39. the word influences in paragraph (1) is closest in meaning to …………

40. the word demand in paragraph (3) is closest in meaning to …………