Model 19

1- نمو التعليم العام

(1) By the early 1800s, reformers persuaded many governments to set up public schools and require basic education for all children. Teaching «the three Rs» – reading, writing and rithmetic – was thought to produce better citizens. In addition, industrialized societies recognized the need for a literate workforce. Schools taught punctuality, obedience to authority. disciplined work habits, and patriotism. In European schools. children also received basic religious education.
Public Education Improves
(2) At first, elementary schools were primitive. Many teachers had little schooling themselves. In rural areas, students attended schools only during the times when they were not needed on the farm or in their parents’ shops.
(3) By the late 1880s, more and more children were in school, and the quality of elementary education improved. Teachers received training at Normal here the latest ‘norms and standards’ of educational practices were taught. Beginning in 1879, schools to train teachers were established in France. In England, schooling girls and boys between the ages of five and ten became compulsory after 1881. Also, governments began to expand secondary schools, known as high schools in the United States. In secondary school, students learned the classical languages Latin and Greek, along with history and mathematics.
(4) In general, only middle-class families could afford to have their sons attend these schools, which trained students for more serious study or for government jobs. Middle-class girls were sent to school primarily in the hope that they might marry well and become better wives and mother’s. Education for girls did not include subjects such as science, mathematics. Or physical education because they were not seen as necessary subjects for girls to learn.
Higher Education Expands
(5) Colleges and universities expanded in this period, too. Most university students were the sons of middle-or upper-class families. The university curriculum emphasized ancient history and languages, philosophy, religion and law. By the late 1800s, universities added courses in the sciences, especially in chemistry and physics At the same time, engineering schools trained students who would have the knowledge and skills to build the new industrial society.
(6) Some women sought greater educational opportunities. By the 1840s, a few small colleges for women opened, including Bedford College in England and Mount Holyoke in the United States. In 1863, the British reformer Emily Davies campaigned for female students to be allowed to take the entrance examinations for Cambridge University. She succeeded, but as late as 1897, male Cambridge students rioted against granting degrees to women.

1. In 1879, where did schools to train teachers start?

2. Where is Mount Holyoke College for Women?

3. What university course was added to the curriculum by the late 1800s?

2- الأصول التاريخية للقانون

(1) The origins and development of laves and legal systems are for the most part based on the actions of government and religion. In many societies, governments and religion are largely intertwined and their laws reflect this. Because of differences in beliefs and values, laws vary widely from one society to another. However, historically only two major types of legal systems developed, civil law systems and common law. The term civil law as used to describe a legal system refers to a system based primarily on written constitutions and written laws or codes. In such legal systems, a ruler of legislative body creates an extensive set of rules or regulations to govern. The role of courts in such systems is limited. Common law systems, on the other hand, are based on precedent or case law.
(2) Civil law jurisdictions, the more common in the world today, date back thousands of years. One of the most famous examples was the Babylonian Empire, a society ruled by a law known as the code of Haminurabi. The code was named after the ruler of the time and dates back to approximately 1760 BCE.
(3) Common law systems are those based on the concept of precedent. In this type of system, laws originate from decisions of courts rather than legislative bodies. Originally. Decisions were based on tradition and custom. but eventually decisions were based on precedent. Precedent requires courts to follow decisions of earlier courts. Common law originated with Medieval England and is found in many countries once occupied by Great Britain.
4. What is the writer’s main purpose in the passage?

5. What is one important idea that the writer mentions?

3-الصناعة في بريطانيا

(1) Britain’s Industrial Revolution brought such wealth and power that Britain became the world’s superpower. This depended both on shipping routes and the factory system. Factories all over the country, but especially the cotton mills in the north of England, needed large numbers of workers. Pushed by poverty and pulled by the chance of work in growing cities such as Manchester, whole families left the English, Scottish. Welsh and Irish countryside where they had lived for generations. This mass internal migration took place alongside migration from other parts of Europe, notably Italy.
(2) As cities grew. hundreds of thousands of people became part of an industrial workforce. Workers organized themselves into trade unions and a labor movement that pressed for social and political change. Demands for higher wages and better living conditions were often led by migrant workers.
(3) Industrial Britain offered business opportunities too. During the 19th century, the growing urban population offered an opportunity for people setting up small businesses dealing in popular items such as street food, clothing or household goods. Britain also attracted entrepreneurs from overseas who believed their ideas and business ventures might succeed in the most technologically advanced country in Europe.
(4) Many migrants settled in areas of cities where they could be close to others who shared their culture and language. This made it easier to find work and accommodation, socialize, shop and generally survive in a new city. Certain areas of cities became identified with particular groups. for example the Irish in the Scotland Road area of Liverpool.

6. Which sentence gives the main idea of Paragraph (1)?

7. What does Paragraph (2) say about the workers during Britain’s Industrial Revolution?

8. What does Paragraph (1) say about Britain’s Industrial Revolution?

9. What does Paragraph (3) say about new business opportunities in Industrial Britain?

10. What is the main idea of the passage?

4-الطاقة الحركية

(1) The first theory about how a hot object differs from a cold object was formed in the 18th century. The suggested explanation was that when an object was heated, an invisible fluid called «caloric» was added to the object. Hot objects contained more caloric than cold objects. The caloric theory could explain some observations about heated objects (such as that the fact that objects expanded as they were heated) but could not explain others (such as why your hands got warm when you rub them together).
(2) In the mid-19th century. scientists devised a new theory to explain heat. The new theory was based on the assumption that matter is made up of tiny particles that are always in motion. In a hot object, the particles move faster and therefore have greater kinetic energy. The theory is called the kinetic-molecular theory and is the accepted theory of heat. Just as a baseball has a certain amount of kinetic energy due to its mass and velocity, each molecule has a certain amount of kinetic energy due to its mass and velocity. Adding up the kinetic energy of all the molecules in an object yields the thermal energy of the object.
(3) When a hot object and a cold object touch each other, the molecules of the objects collide along the surface where they touch. When higher kinetic energy molecules collide with lower kinetic energy molecules. kinetic energy is passed from the molecules with more kinetic energy to those with less kinetic energy.

11. What is the main topic of the passage?

12. What is one important idea related to the new theory of heat in Paragraph (2)?

13. What is one important idea related to the «caloric» theory in Paragraph (1)?

14. Why does the writer mention that hot objects expanded?

5-تحديث الصناعة

(1) Stalin set about achieving modernization of the Soviet economy through a series of Five- Year Plans. These plans were drawn up by GOSPLAN, the state planning organization that Lenin had set up in 1921. It set ambitious targets for production in the important heavy industries (coal, iron, oil, electricity).
(2) The first Five-Year Plan focused on the major industries and although most targets were not met, the achievements were still amazing. The USSR increased production and created a foundation on which to build the next Five Year Plans. The USSR was rich in natural resources, but many of them were in remote places such as Siberia. So whole cities were built from nothing and workers taken out to the new industrial centers. Foreign observers marveled as huge new steel mills appeared at Magnitogorsk in the Urals and Sverdlovsk in central Siberia.
(3) The second Five-Year Plan (1933-37) built on the achievements of the first. Mining for lead, tin, zinc and other minerals increased as Stalin further exploited Siberia’s rich mineral resources. Transport and communications were also boosted, and new railways and canals were built. The most spectacular showpiece project was the Moscow underground railway.
(4) Stalin also wanted industrialization to help improve Russia’s agriculture. The production of tractors and other farm machinery increased dramatically. In the third Five-Year Plan, which was begun in 1938. some factories were to switch to the production of consumer goods. However, this plan was disrupted by the Second World War.

15. How does the writer feel about the Moscow underground railway?

16. How did Stalin solve the problem that Siberia is a far place?

17. Which word can we use to replace So in Paragraph (2)?

18. What does the passage say about Stalin?

6-الاحتكاك

(1) In general, smooth surfaces produce less friction than rough surfaces. The strength of the force of friction depends on two factors: how hard the surfaces push together and the types of surfaces involved. Friction also increases if surfaces push hard against each other. If you rub your hands together forcefully, there is more friction than if you rub your hands together lightly.
(2) Even the smoothest objects have irregular, bumpy Surfaces. When the irregularities of one surface come into contact with those of another surface, friction occurs. Friction acts in a direction opposite to the direction of the object’s motion. Without friction, a moving object might not stop until it strikes another object.
Static Fiction
(3) The friction that acts on objects that are not moving is called static friction. Because of static friction, you must use extra force to start the motion of stationary objects. For example, think about what happens when you try to push a heavy desk across a floor. If you push on the desk with a force less than the force of static friction between the desk and the floor, the desk will not move.
Rolling Fiction
(4) When an object rolls across a surface, rolling friction occurs. This type of friction is important to engineers who design certain products. For example, skates, skateboards, and bicycles need wheels that move freely. So engineers use ball bearings to reduce the friction between the wheels and the rest of the product. These ball bearings are small, smooth steel balls that reduce friction by rolling between moving parts.

19. The word produce in Paragraph (1) is closest in meaning to ……

20. The word increases in Paragraph (1) is closest in meaning to ……

21. What happens because of rubbing two surfaces against each other?

22. What does the use of extra force with stationary objects lead to?

7-السفر

23. What is the percentage of people who travelled for leisure?

8-الويكي

(1) A wiki is a Web site anyone can edit directly within a Web browser (provided the site grants the user edit access). Wikis derive their name from the Hawaiian word for «quick». Ward Cunningham, the «wiki father» named this new class of software with the title in honor of the wiki-wiki shuttle bus at the Honolulu airport. Wikis can indeed be one of the speediest ways to collaboratively create content online. Many popular online wikis serve as a shared knowledge repository in some domain.
(2) The largest and most popular wiki is Wikipedia, but there are hundreds of publicly accessible wikis that anyone can participate in. Each attempts to record a world of knowledge within a particular domain. But wikis can be used for any collaborative effort – from meeting planning to project management. And in addition to the hundreds of public wikis, there are many thousand more that are hidden away behind firewalls, used as trademarked internal tools for organizational collaboration.
(3) Like blogs, the value of a wiki derives from both technical and social features. The technology makes it easy to create, edit, and refine content; learn when content has been changed, how and by whom; and to change content back to a prior state. But it is the social motivations of individuals (to make a contribution, to share knowledge) that allow these features to be harnessed. The larger and more active a wiki community, the more likely it is that content will be up to-date and that errors will be quickly corrected. Several studies have shown that large community wiki entries are as or more accurate than professional publication counterparts.
(4) Went to add to or edit a wiki entry? On most sites you just click the «Edit» link. Wikis support what you see is what you get editing that, while not as robust as traditional word processors is still easy enough for most users to grasp without training or knowledge of obscure code or markup language. Users can make changes to existing content and can easily create new pages or articles and link them to other pages in the wiki. Wikis also provide a version history. Click the «History» link an Wikipedia, for example, and you can see when edits were made and by whom. This feature allows the community to roll back a wiki to a prior page, in the event that someone accidentally deletes key information, or intentionally ruins a page.
(5) Vandalism is a problem on Wikipedia, but it’s more of a nuisance than a crisis. A Wired article chronicled how Wikipedia’s entry for former U.S. President Jimmy Carter was regularly replaced by a photo of a scruffy. random unshaven man. Nasty and inappropriate. to be sure, but the Wikipedia editorial community is now so large and so vigilant that most vandalism is caught and corrected within seconds. Watch-lists for the most active targets (say the web pages of political figures or controversial topics) tip off the community when changes are made. The accounts of vandals can be ?
(6) Wikis are available both as software (commercial as well as open source varieties) that firms can install on their own computers or as online services (both subscription or ad-supported) where content is hosted off-site by third parties. Since wikis can be started without the oversight or involvement of a firm’s IT department, their appearance in organizations often comes from grassroots user initiative. Many wiki services offer additional tools such as blogs, message boards, or spreadsheets as part of their feature set. making most wikis really more full-featured platfors for social computing.
Examples of Wiki Use
(7) Wikis can be vital tools for collecting and leveraging knowledge that would otherwise be scattered throughout an organization: reducing geographic distance and removing boundaries between functional areas. Companies have used wikis in a number of ways:
 At Pixar, all product meetings have an associated wiki to improve productivity. The online agenda ensures that all attendees can arrive knowing the topics and issues to be covered.
Anyone attending
training for new hires. Six months after launch, wiki use had surpassed activity on the firm’s established intranet Wikis are also credited with helping to reduce Dresdner e-mail traffic by 75 percent.
 Sony’s PlayStation team uses wikis to regularly maintain one-page overviews on the status of various projects. In this way, legal, marketing, and finance staff can get quick, up-to-date status reports on relevant projects, including the latest projected deadlines, action items, and benchmark progress. Strong security measures are enforced that limit access to only those who must be in the know, since the overviews often discuss products that have not been released.
 ABC and CBS have created public wikis for the television programs Lost, The Amazing Race, and CSI, among others, offering an outlet for fans, and a way for new viewers to catch up on character backgrounds and complex plot lines.
 Executive Travel, owned by American Express Publishing, has created a travel wiki for its more than one hundred and thirty thousand readers with the goal of creating what it refers to as «a digital mosaic that in theory is more authoritative, comprehensive, and useful» than comments on a Web site and far more up-to-date than any paper-based travel guide.

24. what can we make by Wiki?

25. What are three additional features wiki services provide to their users?

26. Which two companies have used Wikis?

9-تقطير مبسط

(1) Simple distillation is a procedure by which two liquids with different boiling points can be isolated. It can be used effectively to isolate liquids that have at least fifty degrees difference in their boiling points. If we want to obtain the solvent from a solution, then this process of distillation can be carried out.
(2) Water can be obtained from salt water using this method. The solution is heated in the flask until it boils. The steam rises into the Liebig condenser, where it condenses back into water. The salt is left behind in the flask. In hot and arid countries such as Saudi Arabia this sort of technique is used on a much larger scale to obtain pure water for drinking. This process is carried out in a desalination plant.

27. The word Isolate in Paragraph (1) is closest in meaning to ……

28. The words carried out in Paragraph (2) are closest in meaning to ……

10-الحفاظ على الحياة الفطرية

(1) The main thrust of global conservation efforts today is to protect not just individual species but entire ecosystems. The goal is to preserve the natural interactions of many species. To that end, governments and conservation groups work to set aside land as parks and reserves. The United States has national parks, forests, and other protected areas. Marine sanctuaries are being created to protect coral reefs and marine mammals.
(2) The challenge is protecting areas that are large enough and that contain the right resources to protect biodiversity. To make sure that conservation efforts are concentrated in the most important places. conservation biologists have identified ecological hotspots’. An ecological hotspot is a place where significant numbers of species and habitats are in immediate danger of extinction. By identifying these areas, ecologists hope that scientists and governments can better target their efforts to save as many species as possible.

29. The word thrust in Paragraph (1) is closest in meaning to ……

30. The word extinction in Paragraph (2) is closest in meaning to ……

31. The word concentrated in Paragraph (2) is closest in meaning to ……