Model 30

1-النقاء

( 1 ) Government legislation requires that a lot of testing takes place before a new pharmaceutical is marketed .
( 2 ) Throughout the chemical , pharmaceutical and food industries it is essential that the substances used be pure . The purity of a substance can be gauged by :
1. Its melting point – if it is a pure solid it will have a sharp melting point . If an impurity is present then melting takes place over a range of temperature
2. Its boiling ratures . if it is a pure liquid remain steady at its boiling point . if the substance is impure then the mixture will boil over a temperature rang
3. Chromatography – if it is a pure substance it will produce only one well – defined spot on a chromatogram . If impurities are present then several spots will be seen on the chromatogram .

1. The word legislation in paragraph ( 1 ) is closest in meaning to ………………..

2. The word Impure in the passage is closest in meaning to………….

2-اسهم الشركة

( 1 ) There are three types of stock that a business can hold : stocks of raw materials ( inputs brought from suppliers waiting to be used in the production process ) ,work in progress ( incomplete products still in the process of being made ) and stocks of finished products ( finished goods of acceptable quality waiting to be sold to customers ) .
( 2 ) The aim of stock control is to minimize the cost of holding these stocks whilst ensuring that there are enough materials for production to continue and be able to meet customer demand . Obtaining the correct balance is not easy and the stock control department will work closely with the Purchasing and marketing departments .
(3) the marketing department should be able to provide sales forecasts for the coming weeks or months ( this can be difficult if demand is seasonal or prone to unexpected fluctuation ) and so allow stock control managers to judge the type ,quantity and timing of stocks needed .
( 4 ) It is the purchasing department’s responsibility to order the correct quantity and quality of these inputs , at a competitive price and from a reliable supplier who will deliver on time
( 5 ) As it is difficult to ensure that a business has exactly the correct amount of stock at any one time , the majority of firms will hold buffer stock . This is the ” safe” amount of stock that needs to be held to cover unforeseen circumstances .

3. What is the writer’s main purpose ?

4. What is one important idea that the writer mentions ?

3-المخاليط

( 1 ) Many mixtures contain useful substances mixed with unwanted material . In order to obtain these useful substances , chemists often have to separate them from the impurities . Chemists have developed many different methods of separation .
Filtering
( 2 ) When a cup of tea is poured through a tea strainer , this is a filtering process . Filtration is a common separation technique used in chemistry laboratories throughout the world . It is used when a solid needs to be separated from a liquid . For example , sand can be separated from a mixture with water by filtering through filter paper . The filter paper contains holes that are large enough to allow the molecules of water through but not the sand particles . The sand gets trapped in the filter paper and the water passes through it .
Decanting
( 3 ) Vegetables do not dissolve in water . When you have boiled some vegetables it is easy to separate them from the water by pouring it off . This process is called decanting . This technique is used quite often to separate an insoluble solid ( a solid that doesn’t dissolve ) from a liquid .
Centrifuging
( 4 ) Another way to separate a solid from a liquid is to use a centrifuge . It is usually used when the solid particles are so small that they spread out throughout the liquid and mixed . They do not settle to the bottom of the container ,as heavier particles would do , under the force of gravity . The technique of centrifuging involves the liquid being spun round very fast in a centrifuge so that the solid gets flung to the bottom of the tube .

5.What does the writer think about the process of separating mixtures ?

6. What does paragraph (2)  say about filtering ?

7. Which words can we use to replace the  words ” for example “

8. Why does the writer use the word ” so ” at the end of Paragraph ( 4 ) ? 

9. How does centrifuging solve the problem of separating very small solids from a liquid ? 

4-الزراعة في الشرق الأوسط

( 1 ) From the 8th century , the medieval Islamic world underwent a transformation in agricultural practice , described by the historian Andrew Watson as the Arab agricultural revolution . This transformation was driven by a number of factors including the diffusion of many crops and plants along Muslim trade routes , the spread of more advanced farming techniques , and an agricultural – economic system which promoted increased yields and efficiency . The shift in agricultural practice changed the economy , population distribution , vegetation cover , agricultural production , population levels ,urban growth , the distribution of the labor force , cooking , diet , and clothing across the Islamic world .
(2) Muslim traders covered much of the Old World , and trade enabled the diffusion of many crops , plants and farming techniques across the region , as well as the adaptation of crops , plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world . This diffusion introduced major crops to Europe by way of Al Andalus , along with the techniques for their cultivation and cuisine . Sugar cane , rice , and cotton were among the major crops transferred , along with citrus and other fruit trees , nut trees , vegetables such as eggplant , and spinach and the use of spices such as cumin , coriander and cinnamon , Intensive irrigation crop rotation and agricultural manuals were widely adopted . Irrigation , partly based on Roman technology ,made adopted . Irrigation , partly based on Roman technology , made use of water wheels , water mills , dams and reservoirs .

10. What is one important idea in the passage ?

5-النشاط الاقتصادي

(1)There are three main stages of economic activity , these stages are typical of nearly all production and they are called the levels of economic or business – activity
(2) Stage 1 is called the primary stage of production . This stage involves the earth’s natural resources . Activities in the primary sector of industry include farming , fishing . forestry and the extraction of natural materials , such as oil and copper ore
(3) Stage 2 is called the secondary stage of production. This stage involves taking the materials and resources provided by the primary sector and converting them into manufactured or processed goods . Activities” in the secondary sector of industry include building and construction , car manufacturing and computer assembly
(4) Stage 3 is called the tertiary stage of production . This stage involves providing services to both consumers and other businesses Activities in the tertiary sector of industry include transport , banking , retail , insurance , hotels and hairdressing In some countries
(5) Primary industries such as mining employ many more people than manufacturing or service industries . These tend to be countries often called developing countries where manufacturing industry has only recently been established . As most people still live in the rural areas with low incomes , there is little demand for services such as transport , hotels and insurance . The levels of both employment and output in the primary sector in these countries are likely to high in countries which started up manufacturing industries many years ago , the secondary and tertiary sectors are likely to employ many more workers than the primary sector . The level of output in the primary sector is often small compared to the other two sectors .

11. What is the main topic of the passage?

13. Which stage of production are hotels an example of ?

14. What is one important idea in Paragraph ( 3 ) related to the secondary stage of production ?

15. What is one important idea related to jobs in developing countries in Paragraph ( 5 ) ?

6-التحول الديموغرافي

( 1 ) Human societies had equally high birthrates and death rates during most of history . But over the past century , population growth in the United States , Japan ,and much of Europe slowed dramatically . Demographers developed a hypothesis to explain this shift . According to this hypothesis , these countries have completed the demographic transition , a dramatic change from high birthrates and death rates to low birthrates and death rates . The demographic transition is divided into three stages .
( 2 ) To date , the United States , Japan and Europe have completed the demographic transition . Parts of South America , Africa , and Asia , are passing through stage II . ( The United States passed through stage II Between 1790 and1910. ) A large part of human population growth is happening in only ten countries , with India and China in the lead . Globally , human population is still growing rapidly, but the rate of growth is slowing down .Future Population Growth
( 3 ) To predict how the world’s population will grow , demographers consider many factors , including the age structure of each country and the effects of diseases on death rates , especially in Africa and parts of Asia . Current projections suggest that by 2050 the world population will reach 9 billion people . Will the human population level out and become stable ? This may happen if countries that are currently growing rapidly complete the demographic transition.
( 4 ) Current data suggest that global human population will grow more slowly over the next 50 years than it grew over the last 50 years . But because the growth rate will still be higher than zero in 2050 , our population will continue to grow .

16. The word shift in Paragraph ( 1 ) is closest in meaning to ……….

17. The word rates in paragraph ( 1 ) is closest in meaning to ……………………

18. What will lead countries to have a stable population growth ?

19. Why will the population continue to grow in 2050 ?

7-التحليل النفسي

What are the aims and methods of psychoanalysis?
Although most of today’s therapists do not practice therapy as Sigmund Freud did. His psychoanalytic techniques survive. Psychoanalysis is part of our modern vocabulary, and its assumptions influence many other therapies.
Psychoanalysis assumes that many psychological problems are fueled by childhood’s residue of supposedly repressed impulses and conflicts. Psychoanalysts try to bring these repressed feelings into conscious awareness, where the patient can deal with them. By gaining insight into the origins of the disorder – by fulfilling the ancient imperative to “know thyself” in a deep way – the patient “works through” the buried feelings. The theory presumes that healthier, less anxious living becomes possible when patients release the energy they had previously devoted to id-ego-superego conflicts. Psychoanalysis is historical reconstructions. Its goal is to unearth the past in hope of unmasking the present. But how?
When Freud discarded hypnosis as unreliable, he turned to free association. Imagine yourself as a patient using the free association techniques. The analyst invites you to relax, perhaps by lying on a couch. He or she will probably sit out of your line of vision. Helping you focus attention on your internal thoughts and feelings. Beginning with a childhood memory, a dream, or a recent experience, you say aloud whatever comes to tour mind from moment to moment. It sounds easy, but soon you notice how often you edit your thoughts as you speak, omitting material that seems trivial, irrelevant, or shameful. Even in the safe presence of the analyst, you may pause momentarily before uttering an embarrassing thought. You may make a joking remark or change the subject to something less threatening. Sometimes your mind may go blank or you may find yourself unable to remember important details.
To the psychoanalyst, these blocks in the flow of your free associations indicate resistance. They hint that anxiety lucks and that you are repressing sensitive materials. The analyst will want to explore these sensitive areas by making you aware of your resistances and by interpreting their underlying meaning. The analyst’s interpretations – suggestions of underlying wishes, feelings, and conflicts – aim to provide people with insight. If offered at the right moment, the analyst’s interpretation – of, say, your not wanting to talk about your mother – may illuminate what you are avoiding. You may then discover what your resistances mean and how they fit with other pieces of your psychological puzzle. Freud believed that another clue to repressed impulses is your dreams’ hidden content. Thus, after inviting you to report a dream, the analyst may offer a dream analysis, suggesting its hidden meaning.
During many such sessions you will probably disclose more of yourself to your analyst than you have ever revealed to anyone. Because psychoanalytic theory emphasizes the formative power of childhood experiences, much of what you reveal will pertain to your earliest memories. You will also probably find yourself experiencing strong positive or negative feelings for your analyst. Such feelings may express the dependency or mingled love and anger that you earlier experienced toward family members or other important people in your life. When this happens, Freud would say you are actually transferring your strongest feelings from those other relationships to the analyst. Analysts and other therapists believe that this transference exposes long-repressed feelings, giving you a belated chance to work through them with your analyst’s help. By examining your feelings toward the analyst, you may also gain insight into your current relationships.
Note how much of psychoanalysis is built on the assumption that repressed memories exist. That assumption is now questioned. This challenge to an assumption that is basic to so much of professional and popular psychology is provoking intense debate. Critics also say that psychoanalysts’ interpretations are hard to refute. If, in response to the analyst’s suggested interpretation, you say, “yes! I see now,” your acceptance confirms the analyst’s interpretation. If you emphatically say. “No! That doesn’t ring true,” your denial may be taken to reveal more resistance, which would also confirm the interpretation. Psychoanalysts acknowledge that it’s hard to prove or disprove their interpretations. But they insist that interpretations often are a great help to patients. Traditional psychoanalysis is slow and expensive. It requires up to several years of several sessions a week with a highly trained and well-paid analysts. (Three times a week for just two years at $100 or more per hour comes to about $30,000.) Only those with a high income can afford such treatment. Although there are relatively few traditional psychoanalysts. Psychoanalytic assumptions influence many therapists. Especially those who make psychodynamic assumptions. Psychodynamic therapists try to understand patients’ current symptoms by exploring their childhood experiences. They probe for supposed repressed, emotion-laden information. They seek to help people gain insight into the unconscious roots of problems and work through newly resurrected feelings. Although influenced by Freud’s psychoanalysis, these therapists may talk to people face to face (rather than out of the line of vision), once a week (rather than several times weekly). And for only a few weeks or months (rather than several years).

20. What two things can psychoanalysis begin with?

21. What are two characteristics of traditional psychoanalysis ?

8-خشب النانو

(1) Expanded polystyrene (or «Styrofoam») is an excellent insulator. That’s why it’s a popular material for insulating buildings-and why those cheap little cups of deli coffee still burn your tongue after 30 minutes. But its environmental record leaves something to be desired. It’s nonbiodegradable, harmful to animals who accidentally eat it and made from potential carcinogens or cancer-causing chemicals.
(2) developed a super-lightweight insulating material they say could prove to be a better, more eco-friendly alternative. The material, made from tiny wood fibers is called nano wood, it blocks heat at last 10 degrees better than Styrofoam or silica aerogel, a common insulator, and it can take a least 30 times mon pressure tha 45n crushed.
(3) Working in the lab of materials scientist Liangbing Hu. Post doctoral researcher Tain Li is the lead author on the study, published in the journal science Advances.
(4) Hu and his team had been working on nanocellulose, the nano-sized version of the fibrous material that makes plants and trees rigid. Nanocellulose has an impressive strength- to-weight ratio, about eight times greater than than of steel.
(5) For the nano wood, the them removed the lignin, the polymer that holds the cells of wood together Removing the lignin, a heat conductor. gave the resulting product powerful ? capabilities. It also turned the product white which means it reflects light. The ? think nano wood has enormous potentials as a green ? material. Using it could potentially «save billion» in energy costs says Li.

22. What is one negative effect of Styrofoam ?

23. The word alternative in Paragraph ( 2 ) is closest in meaning to………….

24. The word Impressive in Paragraph ( 4 ) is closest in meaning to ……….

25. What happens when lignin is removed from Nano wood ?

9-الإحصاء

( 1 ) In statistics , we generally want to study a population . You can think of a population as a collection of persons , things , or objects under study . To study the population , we select a sample . The idea of sampling is to select a portion of the larger population and study that portion ( the sample ) to gain information about the population .
( 2 ) Data are the result of sampling from a population . Because it takes a lot of time and money to examine an entire population , sampling is a very practical technique . If you wished to calculate the overall grade point average at your school , it would make sense to select a sample school . The data collected from the students who attend the sample would be the grade point averages . In presidential elections , opinion poll samples of 1,000 to 2,000 people are taken . The opinion poll is supposed to represent the views of the people in the entire country .Manufacturers of canned carbonated drinks take samples to determine if a 16 -ounce can contains 16 ounces of carbonated drink . From the sample data , we can calculate a statistic . A statistic is a number that represents a property of the sample.
( 3 ) One of the main concerns in the field of statistics is how accurately a statistic estimates a parameter . The accuracy really depends on how well the sample represents the population . The sample must contain the characteristics of the population in order to be a representative sample .

26. How can statistics be more accurate ?

27. Why does the writer use the word If in Paragraph ( 2 ) ?

28. What does the writer think the selected sample should do ? 

29. What does the passage say about statistics ? 

10-علماء النفس البنيويين

( 1 ) The earliest psychologists that we know about are the Greek philosophers Plato ( 327-428 BC ) and Aristotle ( 384-322 BC ) . These philosophers asked many of the same questions that today’s psychologists ask ; for instance , they questioned the distinction between nature and nurture and the existence of free will . In terms of the former , Plato argued on the nature side , believing that certain kinds of knowledge are innate or inborn , whereas Aristotle was more on the nurture side , believing that each child is born as an ” empty slate ” ( in Latin a tabula rasa )
( 2 ) European philosophers continued to ask these fundamental questions during the Renaissance . For instance , the French philosopher René Descartes(1596 -1650 ) also considered the issue of free will , arguing in its favor and believing that the mind controls the body through the pineal gland in the brain ( an idea that made some sense at this time but was later proved incorrect ) . Descartes also believed in the existence of innate natural abilities . A scientist as well as a philosopher , Descartes dissected animals and was among the first to understand that the nerves controlled the muscles . He also addressed the mechanical body . Other European philosophers , including Thomas Hobbes ( 1588- 1679 ) . Jolm Locke ( 1632-1704 ) , and Jean – Jacques Rousseau ( 1712-1778 ) . also weighed in on these issues . psychologist Wundt ( 1832-1920 ) , who developed a psychology laboratory in Leipzig Germany . and the American psychologist William James ( 1842-1910 ) , who founded a psychology laboratory at Harvard University .
( 3 ) Wundt’s research in his Laboratory in Liepzig focused on the of consciousness Itself . Wundt and his students believed that it was possible to analyze the basic elements of the mind and to classify our conscious experiences scientifically . Wundt began the field know as structuralism , a school of psychology whose goal was to Identify the basic elements or << structures » > of psychological experience . Its goal was to create a << periodic table » > of the << elements of sensations » similar to the periodic table of elements that had recently created in chemistry
(4)Structural used the method of introspection to attempt to create a map of the elements of consciousness Introspection involves asking research participants to describe exactly what . they experience as they work on mental tasks . such as viewing colors . reading a page in a book or performing a math problem .instance , that he saw some black and colored straight and curved marks on a white background . In other studies the structuralists used newly invented reaction time instruments to systematically assess not only what the participants were thinking but how long it took them to do so . Wundt discovered that it took people longer to report what sound they heard that to simply respond that they had heard the sound . These studies marked the first time researchers realized that there is a difference between the sensation of a stimulus and the perception of that stimulus , and the idea of using reaction time to study mental events has now become a mainstay of cognitive.

30. What does Descartes ‘ principle of duality deal with ?

31. What three examples did the structuralists use to explain introspection ? 

11-الفيروسات

( 1 ) Some illnesses are caused by bacteria . Bacteria are alive : They’re very small -you can’t see them without a microscope – but they take in nutrients , reproduce and die . Viruses can make copies of themselves only by hijacking the cells of the creatures they infect . When the flu virus is outside of your body – lurking on a doorknob , for instance – it’s dead by any definition . But once inside your body , it shows many of the characteristics of life . Viruses might even be the descendants of living organisms that shed seemingly necessary traits to live more efficiently with a little help from our cells .
( 2 ) ” Most viruses have molecules – genes and proteins – like us and other live beings . However , they need another living being to make these proteins , ” says Jordi Paps , an evolutionary biologist at the University of Essex in England.
( 3 ) Some researchers point out that many organisms — including such parasites as tapeworms that can live in your gut – need hosts to feed them and help them reproduce . Viruses aren’t so different .
( 4 ) However , others say that all organisms , parasites or not , can make proteins by themselves , but viruses can’t , so this is why they do not consider them alive ,Paps says .
( 5 ) Other scientists see it differently . ” Viruses can be regarded similar to ” seeds ‘ of plants ” , says Gustavo.

32. What idea do the words ” with a little help from our cells “ repeat ?

33. What can we understand from Paragraph ( 1 ) about viruses ? 

34. Which of the following is a fact ?

12-شركات خاصة محدودة

Passage A : Advantages of a private limited company
( 1 ) Shares can be sold to a large number of people ( in some countries there is a maximum number ) . These can include friends and relatives – they cannot advertise the shares for sale to the general public . The sale of shares could lead to much larger sums of capital to invest in the business than original partners could manage to raise themselves . The business could therefore expand more rapidly .
( 2 ) All shareholders have limited liability , this is an important advantage It means that if the company failed with debts owing the shareholders could not be forced to sell their possessions to pay the debts . the shareholders could only lose their original investment in the shares –their liability is limited to the original investment. Shareholders in a company have less risk than sole traders and partners . Limited liability encourages people to buy shares , knowing that the amount they pay is the maximum they could lose if the business is unsuccessful . It is important that the people and other businesses that deal with a private limited company know that it is not a sole trader or a partnership . Creditors , for example , need to be aware business did fail , then they could not take the owners to court to demand payment from their savings . For this reason all private limited company names must end with ‘ Limited or ‘ Ltd ‘ as an abbreviation . In some countries , although not the UK , this title is amended to ‘ Proprietary Limited ‘ or ( Pty ) Ltd ‘ . There can be many shareholders , but they need permission from other shareholders to sell their shares .
Passage B : Disadvantages of a private limited company
( 1 ) There are significant legal matters which have to be dealt with before a company can be formed . In particular , two important forms or documents have to be sent to the Registrar of Companies .
( 2 ) The Articles of Association – This contains the rules under which the company will be managed – the rights and duties of all of the directors ; rules concerning the election of directors and the holding of official meetings ; and the procedure to be followed for the issuing of shares .
( 3 ) The Memorandum of Association – This contains very important information about the company and the directors . The official name and the address of the registered offices of the company must be stated . The objectives of the company must be stated as well as the number of shares to be bought by each of the directors .
( 4 ) Both of these documents are intended to make sure that companies are correctly run and to reassure shareholders about the purpose and structure of the company . Once these documents have been received by the Registrar of Companies , then a Certificate of Incorporation will be issued to allow the company to start trading .
( 5 ) The shares in a private limited company be sold or transferred to anyone else without the agreement of the other shareholders . This rule can make some people reluctant to invest in such a company because they may not be able to sell their shares quickly if they require their investment back .
( 6 ) The accounts of a company are less secret than for either a sole trader or a partnership . Each year the latest accounts must be sent to the Registrar of Companies and members of the public can inspect them . Owners have to be prepared to allow more information about their business to be known to people .
( 7 ) Most importantly for rapidly expanding businesses company cannot offer its shares to the general public . Therefore , it will not be possible to raise really large sums of capital to invest back into the business .

35. What do passages A and B say about a private limited company ?

36. What do passages A and B say about the shareholders of a private limited company ? 

37. What do passages A and B say about a  private limited company obtaining capital investment ?